The United States and Saudi Arabia have signed a landmark civil nuclear agreement that will allow the kingdom to build nuclear reactors using American technology and enrich uranium, the US Department of Energy announced on Wednesday.
The agreement, known as a 123 Agreement, was signed by US Energy Secretary Chris Wright and Saudi Energy Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman, alongside a bilateral safeguards agreement.
Negotiations on a civil nuclear partnership have been ongoing for years under both President Donald Trump’s first administration and the administration of former President Joe Biden, but previous efforts failed to reach a final agreement.
The deal has drawn criticism from nuclear non-proliferation advocates, who argue it could provide Saudi Arabia with capabilities that may one day be used to develop nuclear weapons.
Unlike a proposal previously pursued under the Biden administration, the new agreement does not require Saudi Arabia to adopt the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) Additional Protocol, which allows for more intrusive and short-notice inspections of nuclear facilities.
The agreement also permits Saudi Arabia to enrich uranium and reprocess nuclear waste—activities that can potentially be used in the production of nuclear weapons. By comparison, the United Arab Emirates agreed to forgo both capabilities under its 2009 nuclear agreement with the US.
The Energy Department said the agreement complies with non-proliferation requirements under the US Atomic Energy Act, which it described as among the world’s strongest safeguards.
Saudi Arabia has previously indicated that if it could not secure a nuclear partnership with the United States, it would consider working with countries such as China or Russia, which have different nuclear cooperation standards.
The agreement will now be submitted to the US Congress for review. Under US law, it will automatically take effect unless Congress votes to block it within 90 legislative session days. Overriding a presidential veto would require a two-thirds majority in both chambers.
Several nuclear experts and lawmakers have urged Congress to reject or amend the deal, warning it could increase the risk of nuclear proliferation in the Middle East.
Kelsey Davenport, director for non-proliferation policy at the Arms Control Association, called on lawmakers to prevent the agreement from “opening the door for nuclear proliferation in the Middle East even wider.”
The proposed agreement, which is expected to span around 30 years, includes plans to build AP1000 nuclear reactors and is estimated to be worth tens of billions of dollars. It is expected to benefit Westinghouse, which is jointly owned by Canada’s Cameco and Brookfield Asset Management.
An industry source said the deal requires a feasibility study on deploying US nuclear technology in Saudi Arabia. Given the lengthy process of constructing nuclear power plants and uranium enrichment facilities, the project is expected to take years before becoming operational.
Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman has repeatedly said the kingdom does not intend to develop nuclear weapons but has warned that it would pursue one if Iran acquires a nuclear bomb.
His remarks have fuelled concerns among some US lawmakers that the agreement could trigger a regional arms race, particularly amid heightened tensions involving Iran.
Democratic Senator Edward Markey criticised the agreement, arguing that it allows Saudi Arabia to develop sensitive nuclear technologies while the US continues efforts to prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons.
However, Republican Senator Jim Risch backed the agreement, saying he agreed with the Saudi crown prince that the partnership would benefit both countries.
